Gauss's Lemma (Number Theory)

Lemma
Let $$p$$ be an odd prime.

Let $$a \in \Z: a \not \equiv 0 \pmod p$$.

Let $$S = \left\{{a, 2a, 3a, \ldots, \frac {p-1} 2 a}\right\}$$.

Let $$n$$ denote the number of elements of $$S$$ whose least positive residue modulo $$p$$ is greater than $$\frac p 2$$.

Then $$\left({\frac a p}\right) = \left({-1}\right)^n$$, where $$\left({\frac a p}\right)$$ is the Legendre symbol.

Proof

 * First note that no two elements of $$s$$ are congruent modulo $p$:

Let $$r a \equiv s a \pmod p$$ for some $$r, s$$ such that $$1 \le s \le r \le \frac {p-1} 2$$.

As $$a \perp p$$, we have that $$r a \equiv s a \Longrightarrow r \equiv s \pmod p$$ from Cancellability of Congruences.

Now $$r \equiv s \pmod p$$ can happen only when $$r = s$$ as $$0 \le r - s \le \frac {p-1} 2$$.


 * Next, no element of $$S$$ is congruent modulo $p$ to $$0$$.

This is because $$r a \equiv 0 \pmod p$$ when $$a \not \equiv 0$$ requires $$r \equiv 0$$ which doesn't happen.


 * Now, we create $$S'$$ from $$S$$ by replacing each element of $$S$$ by its least positive residue modulo $$p$$.

Arranging $$S'$$ into increasing order, we get:
 * $$S' = \left\{{b_1, b_2, \ldots, b_m, c_1, c_2, \ldots, c_n}\right\}$$

where $$b_m < \frac p 2 < c_1$$ and $$m + n = \frac {p-1}2$$.

As $$p$$ is an odd prime, $$\frac p 2$$ is not an integer so neither $$b_m$$ nor $$c_1$$ can be equal to $$\frac p 2$$.


 * Now we let $$S'' = \left\{{b_1, b_2, \ldots, b_m, p-c_1, p-c_2, \ldots, p-c_n}\right\}$$

We need to show that $$S'' = \left\{{1, 2, 3, \ldots, \frac {p-1} 2}\right\}$$.

Now:
 * all the elements of $$S''$$ are positive, as all the $$c_j < p$$;
 * the largest one is either $$b_m$$ or $$p - c_1$$;
 * there are $$\frac {p-1}2$$ of them;
 * they are all less than $$\frac p 2$$.

So $$S''$$ contains $$\frac {p-1}2$$ positive integers all less than $$\frac p 2$$.

So all we need to do is show that they are distinct.

As all the elements of $$S'$$ are distinct, the $$m$$ elements $$b_1, b_2, \ldots, b_m$$ are distinct.

Similarly, so are the $$n$$ elements $$p-c_1, p-c_2, \ldots, p-c_n$$.

So, we suppose $$b_i = p - c_j$$ for some $$i, j$$ and try to derive a contradiction.

So:
 * $$p = b_i + c_j \equiv r a + s a \pmod p$$

for some $$r, s$$ such that $$1 \le r, s \le \frac {p-1}2$$.

But from:
 * $$p \equiv \left({r+s}\right) a \pmod p$$ and $$a \not \equiv 0 \pmod p$$

we apply Euclid's Lemma to get $$r + s \equiv 0 \pmod p$$.

But this is impossible since $$2 \le r + s \le p-1$$.

This establishes that $$S'' = \left\{{1, 2, 3, \ldots, \frac {p-1} 2}\right\}$$.


 * Now, we multiply all the elements of $$S''$$ together:

$$ $$ $$ $$ $$

Now, from GCD with Prime, $$\gcd \left\{{p, \left({\frac {p-1}2}\right)!}\right\} = 1$$.

So from Cancellability of Congruences the term $$\left({\frac {p-1}2}\right)!$$ can be cancelled from both sides of the above congruence:
 * $$1 \equiv \left({-1}\right)^n a^{\frac{p-1}2} \pmod p$$

Finally, from the definition of the Legendre symbol, we have $$\left({\frac{a}{p}}\right) \equiv a^{\left({\frac {p-1}2}\right)} \pmod p$$.

Multiplying both sides of the congruence by $$\left({-1}\right)^n$$ gives us:
 * $$\left({\frac{a}{p}}\right) = \left({-1}\right)^n$$.