User:Julius

Current focus

 * Build the bulk knowledge on calcul\us of variations based on Gelfand's Calculus of Variations, then recheck with a couple of other books and slowly improve proofs.

Theorem(Sequences of Right Shift Operators in 2-Sequence Space Converge in Weak Operator Topology)
Let $\struct {\ell^2, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_2}$ be the $2$-sequence normed vector space.

Let $\map {CL} {\ell^2} := \map {CL} {\ell^2, \ell^2}$ be the continuous linear transformation space.

For $n \in \N$ let $R_n \in \map {CL} {\ell^2}$ be the right shift operator over $\ell^2$.

Let $\sequence {R_n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ be a sequence.

Let $\mathbf 0 \in \map {CL} {\ell^2}$ be the zero mapping.

Then $\sequence {R_n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ converges to $\mathbf 0$ in the weak operator topology.

Proof
We have that:


 * $\ds \forall \phi \in \map {CL} {\ell^2} : \exists \mathbf x_\phi = \sequence {\map {\mathbf x_\phi} k}_{k \mathop \in \N} \in \ell^2 : \forall \mathbf a = \sequence {\map {\mathbf a} k}_{k \mathop \in \N} \in \ell^2 : \map \phi {\mathbf a} = \sum_{k \mathop = 1}^\infty \map {\mathbf a} k \paren{\map {\mathbf x_\phi} k}^*$

where $*$ denotes the complex conjugation.

Furthermore:

Hence, $\sequence {R^n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ converges to $\mathbf 0 \in \map {CL} {\ell^2}$ in the weak operator topology.

Theorem(Sequences of Right Shift Operators in 2-Sequence Space do not Converge in Strong Operator Topology)
Let $\struct {\ell^2, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_2}$ be the $2$-sequence normed vector space.

Let $\map {CL} {\ell^2} := \map {CL} {\ell^2, \ell^2}$ be the continuous linear transformation space.

For $n \in \N$ let $R_n \in \map {CL} {\ell^2}$ be the right shift operator over $\ell^2$.

Let $\sequence {R_n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ be a sequence.

Let $\mathbf 0 \in \map {CL} {\ell^2}$ be the zero mapping.

Then $\sequence {R_n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ does not converge to $\mathbf 0$ in the strong operator topology.

Proof
Let $\mathbf e_1 = \tuple {1, 0, \ldots} \in \ell^2$

Then $R^n \mathbf e_1 = \tuple {\underbrace {\ldots, 0}_{n \text{ terms} }, 1, 0, \ldots}$

So:


 * $\forall n \in \N : \norm {R^n \mathbf e_1}_2 = 1$

Therefore:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \norm {R^n \mathbf e_1}_2 = 1$

Hence, $\sequence {R^n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ does not converge to $\mathbf 0$ in the strong operator topology.

Theorem
Let $\struct {X, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_X}$ and $\struct {Y, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_Y}$ be normed vector spaces.

Let $\struct{\map {CL} {X, Y}, \norm{\, \cdot \,}}$ be the continuous linear transformation space equipped with the supremum operator norm.

Then $\struct {\map {CL} {X, Y}, \norm{\, \cdot \,} }$ is a Banach Space iff $\struct {Y, \norm{\, \cdot \,}_Y}$ is a Banach Space.

Necessary Condition
Let $Y$ be a Banach space.

Let $\sequence {T_n}_{n \mathop \in \N} \in \map {CL} {X, Y}$ be a Cauchy sequence.

Let $x \in X$.

Let $\norm {\, \cdot \,}$ be the supremum operator norm.

$\sequence {T_n x}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ is a Cauchy sequence in $\struct {Y, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_Y}$
We have that:

By definition of Cauchy sequence:


 * $\forall \epsilon \in \R_{>0}: \exists N \in \N: \forall m, n \in \N: m, n \ge N: \norm {T_n - T_m} < \epsilon$

Suppose $m, n \ge N$.

Then:


 * $\forall \epsilon \in \R_{>0} : \forall x \in X : \norm {T_n x - T_m x}_Y < \epsilon \norm x_X$

Let $\epsilon' = \epsilon \norm x_X$

$\epsilon \in \R_{>0}$ and $x \in X$ were arbitrary.

Hence $\epsilon' \in \R_{> 0}$ is also arbitrary.

Therefore:


 * $\forall \epsilon' \in \R_{> 0} : \exists N \in \N: \forall m, n \in \N: m, n \ge N: \norm {T_n x - T_m x}_Y < \epsilon'$

By definition, $\sequence {T_n x}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ is a Cauchy sequence in $\struct {Y, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_Y}$.

$\sequence {T_n x}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ converges in $\struct {Y, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_Y}$
$Y$ is Banach.

$\sequence {T_n x}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ is a Cauchy sequence in $\struct {Y, \norm {\, \cdot \,}_Y}$.

Hence, $\sequence {T_n x}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ converges in $Y$ with limit, say, $Tx \in Y$.

$T$ is a linear transformation
Let $x_1, x_2 \in X$.

Then:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren{T_n x_1} = T x_1$


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren{T_n x_2} = T x_2$

$Y$ is a vector space.

Thus, $x_1 + x_2 \in Y$.

Hence:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren {T_n \paren {x_1 + x_2}} = T \paren {x_1 + x_2}$

By combination of limits:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren{T_n x_1 + T_n x_2} = T x_1 + T x_2$

By linearity of $T_n$:


 * $\sequence {T_n x_1 + T_n x_2}_{n \mathop \in \N} = \sequence {T\paren {x_1 + x_2}}_{n \mathop \in \N}$

By uniqueness of limits:


 * $T \paren {x_1 + x_2} = T x_1 + T x_2$.

Let $\alpha \in \set {\R, \C}$.

Let $x \in X$.

Then:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren {T_n x} = T x$

By Multiple Rule for Sequences:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren {\alpha \cdot T_n x} = \alpha \cdot T x$

By linearity of $T_n$:


 * $\sequence{\alpha \cdot \paren{T_n x}}_{n \mathop \in \N} = \sequence{T_n\paren{\alpha \cdot x}}_{n \mathop \in \N}$

Since $X$ is a vector space:


 * $\alpha \cdot x \in X$

Then:


 * $\ds \lim_{n \mathop \to \infty} \paren {T_n\paren{\alpha \cdot x}}_{n \mathop \in \N} = T \paren {\alpha \cdot x}$.

Altogether:


 * $\alpha \cdot \map T x = \map T {\alpha \cdot x}$.

Altogether, by definition of linear transformation:


 * $T \in \map \LL {X, Y}$

$T$ is a continuous transformation
Let $\sequence {T_n}_{n \mathop \in \N} \in \map {CL} {X, Y}$ be a Cauchy sequence.

Then:


 * $\exists N \in \N : \forall m, n \in \N : m, n > N : \norm {T_n - T_m} < \epsilon$

Hence:


 * $\exists N \in \N : \forall n > N : \norm {T_n - T_{N + 1} } < \epsilon$

Therefore:

Take the limit $n \to \infty$.

Then:


 * $\forall x \in X : \norm {T x - T_{N + 1} x} < \epsilon \norm x_X$

Thus:

By continuity of linear transformations:


 * $T \in \map {CL} {X, Y}$.

$T_n$ converges to $T$ in $\struct {\map {CL} {X, Y}, \norm {\, \cdot \,}}$
By definition of Cauchy sequence.


 * $\forall \epsilon \in \R_{>0} : \exists N \in \N : \forall n, m \in \N : n, m > N \implies \norm {T_n - T_m} < \epsilon$

Hence:

We have that Norm on Vector Space is Continuous Function.

Take the limit $m \to \infty$.

By Limit of Composite Function:

Hence:


 * $\forall \epsilon \in \R_{>0} : \exists N \in \N : \forall n > N : \norm {T_n - T} < \epsilon$

By definition, $T$ is continuous.

Altogether, a Cauchy sequence $\sequence {T_n}_{n \mathop \in \N}$ converges to a linear and continuous mapping $T$ in $\struct {\map {CL} {X,Y}, \norm{\, \cdot \,}}$.

Example 1
Suppose that:


 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_1^2 \frac {\sqrt {1+y'^2} } {x} \rd x$

with the following boundary conditions:


 * $\map y 1 = 0$


 * $\map y 2 = 1$

Then the smooth minimizer of $J$ is a circle of the following form:


 * $\paren {y - 2}^2 + x^2 = 5$

Proof
$J$ is of the form


 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_a^b \map F {x, y'} \rd x$

Then we can use the "no y theorem":


 * $F_y = C$

i.e.


 * $\frac {y'} {x \sqrt {1 + y'^2} } = C$

or


 * $y' = \frac {C x} {\sqrt {1 - C^2 x^2} }$

The integral is equal to


 * $y = \frac {\sqrt {1 - C^2 x^2} } C + C_1$

or


 * $\paren {y - C_1}^2 + x^2 = C^{-2}$

From the conditions $\map y 1 = 0$, $\map y 2 = 1$ we find that


 * $C = \frac 1 {\sqrt 5}$


 * $C_1 = 2$

Example 3

 * $J \sqbrk = \int_a^b \paren {x - y}^2$

is minimized by


 * $\map y x = x$

Proof
Euler' equation:


 * $F_y = 0$

i.e.


 * $2 \paren {x - y} = 0$.

Example p31
Suppose:


 * $J \sqbrk r = \int_{\phi_0}^{\phi_1} \sqrt{r^2 + r'^2} \rd \phi$

Euler's Equation:


 * $\displaystyle \frac r {\sqrt{r^2 + r'^2} } - \dfrac \d {\d \phi} \frac {r'} {\sqrt{r^2 + r'^2} }$

Apply change of variables:


 * $x = r \cos \phi, y = r \sin \phi$

The integral becomes:


 * $\displaystyle \int_{x_0}^{x_1} \sqrt{1 + y'^2} \rd x$

Euler's equation:


 * $y'' = 0$

Its solution:


 * $y = \alpha x + \beta$

or


 * $r \sin \phi = \alpha r \cos \phi + \beta$

Example

 * $J \sqbrk = \int_{x_0}^{x_1} \map f {x,y} \sqrt {1+y'^2}\rd x$


 * $F_{y'} = \map f {x,y} \frac {y'} {\sqrt{1 + y'^2} }=\frac {y' F} {1 + y'^2}$


 * $F + \paren {\phi' - y'}F_{y'} = \frac {\paren{1+y'\phi'}F} {1+y'^2} = 0$


 * $F + \paren {\psi' - y'}F_{y'} = \frac {\paren{1+y'\psi'}F} {1+y'^2} = 0$

i.e.


 * $y' = -\frac 1 {\phi'}$


 * $y' = - \frac 1 {\psi'}$

Transversality reduces to orthogonality

Example: points on surfaces

 * $J \sqbrk {y,z} = \int_{x_0}^{x_1} \map F {x,y,z,y',z'} \rd x$

Transversality conditions:


 * $\sqbrk {F_{y'} + \dfrac {\partial \phi} {\partial y} \paren {F - y'F_{y'} - z'F_{z'} } }|_{x=x0} = 0$


 * $\sqbrk {F_{z'} + \dfrac {\partial \phi} {\partial z} \paren {F - y'F_{y'} - z'F_{z'} } }|_{x=x0} = 0$


 * $\sqbrk {F_{y'} + \dfrac {\partial \phi} {\partial y} \paren {F - y'F_{y'} - z'F_{z'} } }|_{x=x1} = 0$


 * $\sqbrk {F_{z'} + \dfrac {\partial \phi} {\partial z} \paren {F - y'F_{y'} - z'F_{z'} } }|_{x=x1} = 0$

Example: Legendre transformation

 * $\map f \xi = \frac {\xi^a} a, a>1$


 * $\map {f'} \xi = p = \xi^{a-1}$

i.e.


 * $\xi = p^{\frac {1} {a-1} }$


 * $H = - \frac {\xi^a} {a} + p\xi = - \frac {p^{\frac {a} {a-1} } } a + p p^{\frac {a} {a-1} } = p^{\frac {a} {a-1} } \paren{1 - \frac 1 a}$

Hence:


 * $\map H p = \frac {p^b} b$

where:


 * $\frac 1 a + \frac 1 b = 1$

Example

 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_a^b \paren {Py'^2 + Q y^2} \rd x$


 * $p = 2 P y', H = P y'^2 - Q y^2$

Hence:


 * $H = \frac {p^2} {4 P} - Q y^2$

Canonical equations:


 * $\dfrac {\d p} {\d x} = 2 Q y$


 * $\dfrac {\d y} {\d x} = \frac p {2 P}$

Euler's Equation:


 * $2 y Q - \dfrac \d {\d x} \paren {2 P y'} = 0$

Example: Noether's theorem 1

 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_{x0}^{x1} y'^2 \rd x$

is invariant under the transformation:


 * $x^* = x + \epsilon, y^* = y$


 * $y^* = \map y {x^* - \epsilon} = \map {y^*} {x^*}$

Then:


 * $J \sqbrk {\gamma^*} = \int_{x0^*}^{x1^*} \sqbrk { \dfrac {\d \map {y^*} {x^*} } {\d x^*} } \rd x^* = \int_{x0+\epsilon}^{x_1 + \epsilon} \sqbrk { \dfrac {\d \map y {x^* - \epsilon} } {\d x^*} }^2 \rd x^* = \int_{x0}^{x1} \sqbrk { \dfrac {\d \map y x} {\d x} }^2 \rd x = J \sqbrk \gamma$

Example: Neother's theorem 2

 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_{x_0}^{x_1} x y'^2 \rd x$

Example: Noether's theorem 3

 * $J \sqbrk y = \int_{x_0}^{x_1} \map F {y, y'} \rd x$

Invariant under $x^* = x + \epsilon, y_i^* = y_i$

I.e. $\phi = 1, \psi_i = 0$

reduces to $H = \const$

Momentum of the system:

 * $P_x = \sum_{y = 1}^n p_{ix}, P_y = \sum_{y = 1}^n p_{iy}, P_z = \sum_{z = 1}^n p_{iz}$

(Examples: attraction to a fixed point, attraction to a homogenous distribution on an axis)

Geodetic distance:Examples
If $J$ is arclength, $S$ is distance.

If $J$ is a moment of time to pass a segment of optical medium, then $S$ is the time needed to pass the whole optical body.

If $J$ is action, then $S$ is the minimal action.

Examples of quadratic functionals
1) $B \sqbrk {x, y} = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \map x t \map y t \rd t$

Corresponding quadratic functional

$A \sqbrk x = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \map {x^2} t$

2) $B \sqbrk {x, y} = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \map \alpha t \map x t \map y t \rd t$

Corresponding quadratic functional

$A \sqbrk x = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \map \alpha t \map {x^2} t \rd t$

3)

$A \sqbrk x = \int_{t_0}^{t_1} \paren {\map \alpha t \map {x^2} t + \map \beta t \map x t \map {x'} t+ \map \gamma t \map {x'^2} t} \rd t$

4)

$B \sqbrk {x, y} = \int_a^b \int_a^b \map K {s, t} \map x s \map y t \rd s \rd t$