Book:Merrilee H. Salmon/Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking

Merrilee H. Salmon: Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking

Published $\text {1995}$, Harcourt Brace & Company

ISBN 0-15-543064-5

Subject Matter

• Logic
• Probability Theory

Contents

Preface to the First Edition

Preface to the Third Edition

Chapter One. Introduction to Arguments

I. Introduction

II. Arguments

III. Recognizing Arguments

IV. Extended Arguments

V. Reconstructing Arguments

1. Incompletely Stated Arguments

2. Contextual Clues for Reconstructing Arguments

VI. Review

Chapter Two. Paying Special Attention to the Language of Arguments

I. Introduction

II. Ambiguity

III. Vagueness

IV. Definition

1. Ostensive Definition

2. Verbal Extensional Defunition

3. Intensional Definition

i. Definitions that Show How a Word Is Commonly Used

ii. Definitions that Introduce a New Word into the Language

iii. Definitions that Reduce Vagueness

iv. Definitions for Theoretical Purposes

v. Definitions Designed to Transfer Emotive Force

4. Syntactic Definitions and Implicit Definition

5. Operational Definitions

V. Review

Chapter Three. Deductive Arguments, Inductive Arguments, Fallacies

I. Introduction

II. Deductive Arguments

III. Inductive Arguments

IV. Fallacies

V. Review

Chapter Four. A Closer Look At Inductive Arguments

I. Introduction

II. Statistical Syllogisms

1. Form of Statistical Syllogisms

2. Standards for the Strength of Statistical Syllogisms

3. The Fallacy of Incomplete Evidence

4. Special Types of Statistical Syllogism

i. Arguments from Authority

ii. Arguments Against the Person (Argumentatum Ad Hominem)

iii. Arguments from Consensus

5. Missing Premisses in Statistical Syllogisms

6. An Incorrect Form of Inductive Argument

III. Arguments From Analogy

1. Form of Arguments from Analogy

2. Standards for the Strength of Analogical Arguments

3. Fallacies Associated with Analogical Arguments

4. Analogy in Archaeology and in Legal and Moral Reasoning

5. Analogy and the Slippery Slope

IV. Arguments Based on Samples

1. Preliminary Account of the Form of Arguments Based on Samples

2. Standards for the Strength of Inductive Generalizations

3. Fallacies Associated with Inductive Generalizations

4. The Revised Form of Inductive Generalization

V. Extended Inductive Arguments

VI. Pro and Con Arguments

VII. Review

Chapter Five. Causal Arguments

I. Introduction

II. Mill's Method for Establishing Causal Claims

1. The Method of Agreement

2. The Method of Difference

3. The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

4. The Method of Concomitant Variation

5. The Method of Residues

III. Controlled Experiments

IV. Different Uses of "Cause"

V. Hume's Analysis of Causation

VI. Causal Fallacies

1. Confusing Coincidental Relationships with Causes (Post Hoc)

2. Ignoring a Common Cause

3. Confusing Cause and Effect

4. Genetic Fallacy: Reasons and Causes

5. Confusing the Harm or Benefits that Result from Holding a Belief with Evidence for It

VII. Review

Chapter Six. Probabilities and Inductive Logic

I. Introduction

II. The Rules of Probability

III. Decision Theory: Using Probabilities to Plan a Course of Action

1. Decisions Under Risk

2. Decisions Under Certainty

3. Decisions Under Uncertainty

4. The Prisoner's Dilemma

5. The Petersburg Paradox

6. The Law of Averages and the Gamblers' Fallacy

IV. Review

Chapter Seven. Deductive Reasoning: Conditional Arguments

I. Introduction

II. Properties of Deductive Arguments: Validity and the Importance of Logical Form

III. Conditional Sentences

1. The Structure of Conditionals

2. The Truth of Conditionals

IV. Conditional Arguments

1. Affirming the Antecedent

2. Denying the Consequent

3. Unstated Premisses in Conditional Arguments

V. Fallacies Associated with Conditional Arguments

1. Fallacious (Invalid) Forms of Argument

2. Invalid and Fallacious Arguments

VI. Review

Chapter Eight. Confirmation of Hypotheses

I. Hypotheses

II. The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

III. Complexities in the Hypothetico-Deductive Method

1. Auxiliary Hypotheses

2. Alternative Hypotheses

3. Form of Inductive Arguments of Confirmation

4. Confirming a Causal Hypothesis

IV. Incremental Confirmation and "Absolute" Confirmation

V. Disconfirmation

1. Crucial Tests

2. Disconfirming a Causal Hypothesis

VI. Bayesian Confirmation

1. Bayes's Theorem

VII. Review

Chapter Nine. Arguments in Which Validity Depends on Connections Among Sentences

I. Introduction

1. Hypothetical Syllogisms

2. Dilemmas

3. False Dilemmas

4. Disjunctive Syllogisms

II. Symbolizing Connectives

III. Symbolizing English Sentences

IV. Determining the Truth Values of Compound Sentence Forms

V. Determining the Validity or Invalidity of Argument Forms

VI. Tautologies, Self-Contradictions, and Contingent Sentences

VII. Logic and Computers: Application of Truth-Functional Logic

1. Representation of Numbers

i. Decimal System

ii. Binary System

2. Binary Addition

3. Constructing an Adder

4. Disjunctive Normal Forms

VIII. Review

Chapter Ten. Categorical Syllogisms

I. Introduction

II. Categorical Sentences

1. Relationships among Categorical Sentences - the Traditional Square of Opposition

2. Existential Import and the Modern Square of Opposition

III. Translating English Sentences Into Standard Categorical Forms

1. A Sentences

2. E Sentences

3. I Sentences

4. O Sentences

IV. Testing for Validity With Venn Diagrams

V. Distribution of Terms

VI. Rules for Testing the Validity of Syllogisms

1. Three Rules for Valid Syllogisms

2. Examples of Using the Rules to Test Validity

VII. Reducing the Number of Terms in Syllogisms

IX. Quasi-Syllogisms and Sorites

1. Quasi-Syllogisms

2. Sorites

X. Review

Chapter Eleven. Arguments in Which Validity Depends on Relationships

I. Introduction

II. Examples of Relational Arguments

III. Important Properties of Relationships

IV. Using Quantifiers to Express Relationships

1. Symbolizing the Universal Quantifier

2. Symbolizing the Existential Quantifier

3. Symbolizing Relational Sentences

4. Multiple Quantifiers

5. The Fallacy of Every and All

V. Symbolizing Arguments

VI. Review

Appendix One. Proof Method for Truth-Functional Logic

I. Introduction

II. The Proof Method

III. Justifying the Rules of Inference

Appendix Two. Index of Fallacies

Bibliography

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

Index