# Vandermonde Determinant

## Theorem

The Vandermonde determinant of order $n$ is the determinant defined as follows:

$V_n = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_n & x_n^2 & \cdots & x_n^{n-2} & x_n^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}$

Its value is given by:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le n} \left({x_j - x_i}\right)$

## Alternative Formulations

The Vandermonde determinant is given variously in the literature. Here are some alternative ways it is sometimes seen.

### Knuth

Donald E. Knuth refers to the matrix itself, and calls it Vandermonde's matrix, defining it compactly as $a_{ij} = x_j^i$.

Thus, if:

$\mathbf{V} = \begin{bmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & \cdots & x_n \\ x_1^2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_n^2 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ x_1^n & x_2^n & \cdots & x_n^n \end{bmatrix}$

then:

$\displaystyle \det \left({\mathbf{V}}\right) = \prod_{1 \mathop \le j \mathop \le n} x_j \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le n} \left({x_j - x_i}\right)$

The proof follows directly from that for above and the result Determinant with Row Multiplied by Constant.

### Mirsky

Mirsky gives it as:

$D = \begin{vmatrix} a_1^{n-1} & a_1^{n-2} & \cdots & a_1 & 1 \\ a_2^{n-1} & a_2^{n-2} & \cdots & a_2 & 1 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ a_n^{n-1} & a_n^{n-2} & \cdots & a_n & 1 \\ \end{vmatrix}$

Its value is given by:

$\displaystyle D = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le n} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

## Proof 1

Let $V_n = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_3 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1} & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_n & x_n^2 & \cdots & x_n^{n-2} & x_n^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}$.

By Multiple of Row Added to Row of Determinant, we can subtract row 1 from each of the other rows and leave $V_n$ unchanged:

$V_n = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 0 & x_2 - x_1 & x_2^2 - x_1^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} - x_1^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} - x_1^{n-1} \\ 0 & x_3 - x_1 & x_3^2 - x_1^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} - x_1^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} - x_1^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 0 & x_{n-1} - x_1 & x_{n-1}^2 - x_1^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} - x_1^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} - x_1^{n-1} \\ 0 & x_n - x_1 & x_n^2 - x_1^2 & \cdots & x_n^{n-2} - x_1^{n-2} & x_n^{n-1} - x_1^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}$

Similarly without changing the value of $V_n$, we can subtract, in order, $x_1$ times column $n-1$ from column $n$, $x_1$ times column $n-2$ from column $n-1$, and so on, till we subtract $x_1$ times column $1$ from column $2$.

The first row will vanish all apart from the first element $a_{11} = 1$.

On all the other rows, we get, with new $i$ and $j$:

$a_{ij} = \left({x_i^{j-1} - x_1^{j-1}}\right) - \left({x_1 x_i^{j-2} - x_1^{j-1}}\right) = \left({x_i - x_1}\right) x_i^{j-2}$:
$V_n = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & x_2 - x_1 & \left({x_2 - x_1}\right) x_2 & \cdots & \left({x_2 - x_1}\right) x_2^{n-3} & \left({x_2 - x_1}\right) x_2^{n-2} \\ 0 & x_3 - x_1 & \left({x_3 - x_1}\right) x_3 & \cdots & \left({x_3 - x_1}\right) x_3^{n-3} & \left({x_3 - x_1}\right) x_3^{n-2} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 0 & x_{n-1} - x_1 & \left({x_{n-1} - x_1}\right) x_{n-1} & \cdots & \left({x_{n-1} - x_1}\right) x_{n-1}^{n-3} & \left({x_{n-1} - x_1}\right) x_{n-1}^{n-2}\\ 0 & x_n - x_1 & \left({x_n - x_1}\right) x_n & \cdots & \left({x_n - x_1}\right) x_n^{n-3} & \left({x_n - x_1}\right) x_n^{n-2} \end{vmatrix}$

For all rows apart from the first, the $k$th row has the constant factor $\left({x_k - x_1}\right)$.

So we can extract all these as factors, and from Determinant with Row Multiplied by Constant, we get:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{k \mathop = 2}^n \left({x_k - x_1}\right) \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & x_2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-3} & x_2^{n-2} \\ 0 & 1 & x_3 & \cdots & x_3^{n-3} & x_3^{n-2} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 0 & 1 & x_{n-1} & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-3} & x_{n-1}^{n-2}\\ 0 & 1 & x_n & \cdots & x_n^{n-3} & x_n^{n-2} \end{vmatrix}$

From Determinant with Unit Element in Otherwise Zero Row, we can see that this directly gives us:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{k \mathop = 2}^n \left({x_k - x_1}\right) \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-3} & x_2^{n-2} \\ 1 & x_3 & \cdots & x_3^{n-3} & x_3^{n-2} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1} & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-3} & x_{n-1}^{n-2}\\ 1 & x_n & \cdots & x_n^{n-3} & x_n^{n-2} \end{vmatrix}$

and it can be seen that:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{k \mathop = 2}^n \left({x_k - x_1}\right) V_{n-1}$

$V_2$, by the time we get to it (it will concern elements $x_{n-1}$ and $x_n$), can be calculated directly using the formula for calculating a Determinant of Order 2:

$V_2 = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_{n-1} \\ 1 & x_n \end{vmatrix} = x_n - x_{n-1}$

The result follows.

$\blacksquare$

## Proof 2

Proof by induction:

Let $V_n = \begin{vmatrix} a_1^{n-1} & a_1^{n-2} & \cdots & a_1 & 1 \\ a_2^{n-1} & a_2^{n-2} & \cdots & a_2 & 1 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ a_n^{n-1} & a_n^{n-2} & \cdots & a_n & 1 \\ \end{vmatrix}$

(It's written that way round to make the proof come out easier. This is how Mirsky derives the result.)

For all $n \in \N_{>0}$, let $P \left({n}\right)$ be the proposition:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le n} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

$P(1)$ is true, as this just says $\begin{vmatrix} 1 \end{vmatrix} = 1$.

### Basis for the Induction

$P(2)$ holds, as it is the case:

$V_2 = \begin{vmatrix} a_1 & 1 \\ a_2 & 1 \end{vmatrix}$

which evaluates to $V_2 = a_1 - a_2$.

This is our basis for the induction.

### Induction Hypothesis

Now we need to show that, if $P \left({k}\right)$ is true, where $k \ge 2$, then it logically follows that $P \left({k+1}\right)$ is true.

So this is our induction hypothesis:

$\displaystyle V_k = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le k} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

Then we need to show:

$\displaystyle V_{k+1} = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le k+1} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

### Induction Step

This is our induction step:

Take the determinant:

$V_{k+1} = \begin{vmatrix} x^k & x^{k-1} & \cdots & x^2 & x & 1 \\ a_2^k & a_2^{k-1} & \cdots & a_2^2 & a_2 & 1 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots \\ a_{k+1}^k & a_{k+1}^{k-1} & \cdots & a_{k+1}^2 & a_{k+1} & 1 \end{vmatrix}$

If you use the Expansion Theorem for Determinants‎ to expand it in terms of the first row, you can see it is a polynomial in $x$ whose degree is no greater than $k$.

Call that polynomial $f \left({x}\right)$.

If you substitute any $a_r$ for $x$ in the determinant, two of its rows will be the same.

So the value of such a determinant will be $0$, from Square Matrix with Duplicate Rows has Zero Determinant.

Such a substitution in the determinant is equivalent to substituting $a_r$ for $x$ in $f \left({x}\right)$.

Thus it follows that $f \left({a_2}\right) = f \left({a_3}\right) = \ldots = f \left({a_{k+1}}\right) = 0$ as well.

So $f \left({x}\right)$ is divisible by each of the factors $x - a_2, x - a_3, \ldots, x - a_{k+1}$.

All these factors are distinct otherwise the original determinant is zero.

So:

$f \left({x}\right) = C \left({x - a_2}\right) \left({x - a_3}\right) \cdots \left({x - a_k}\right) \left({x - a_{k+1}}\right)$

As the degree of $f \left({x}\right)$ is no greater than $k$, it follows that $C$ is independent of $x$.

From the Expansion Theorem for Determinants‎, we can see that the coefficient of $x^k$ is:

$\begin{vmatrix} a_2^{k-1} & \cdots & a_2^2 & a_2 & 1 \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots \\ a_{k+1}^{k-1} & \cdots & a_{k+1}^2 & a_{k+1} & 1 \end{vmatrix}$.

By the induction hypothesis, this is equal to:

$\displaystyle \prod_{2 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le k+1} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

So this has to be our value of $C$.

So we have:

$\displaystyle f \left({x}\right) = \left({x - a_2}\right) \left({x - a_3}\right) \cdots \left({x - a_k}\right) \left({x - a_{k+1}}\right) \prod_{2 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le k+1} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

Substituting $a_1$ for $x$, we retrieve the proposition $P \left({k+1}\right)$.

So $P \left({k}\right) \implies P \left({k+1}\right)$ and the result follows by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Therefore:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{1 \mathop \le i \mathop < j \mathop \le n} \left({a_i - a_j}\right)$

$\blacksquare$

## Proof 3

Let $V_n = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_3 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1} & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_n & x_n^2 & \cdots & x_n^{n-2} & x_n^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}$.

To obtain the value of the Vandermonde's determinant we start by replacing number $x_n$ in the determinant with the unknown $x$ thus making determinant a function of $x$.

$P(x) = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_3 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1} & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} \\ 1 & x & x^2 & \cdots & x^{n-2} & x^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}$.

After performing row expansion by last row we deduce that function $P(x)$ is polynomial of degree $n-1$:

$P(x) = \begin{vmatrix} x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ x_3 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ x_{n-1} & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} \end{vmatrix} + \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} & x_1^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} & x_2^{n-1} \\ 1 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} & x_3^{n-1} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} & x_{n-1}^{n-1} \end{vmatrix}x \ \ + \ \ \cdots \ \ + \ \ \begin{vmatrix} 1 & x_1 & x_1^2 & \cdots & x_1^{n-2} \\ 1 & x_2 & x_2^2 & \cdots & x_2^{n-2} \\ 1 & x_3 & x_3^2 & \cdots & x_3^{n-2} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 1 & x_{n-1} & x_{n-1}^2 & \cdots & x_{n-1}^{n-2} \end{vmatrix}x^{n-1}$.

We can see that statement $P(x) = 0$ holds true for all $x_1, x_2, \cdots x_{n-1}$ because if $x=x_1, x_2, \cdots x_{n-1}$ starting determinant would have two equal rows and by Square Matrix with Duplicate Rows has Zero Determinant would $V_n = 0$. By the Polynomial Factor Theorem we can now write $P(x) = C(x-x_1)(x-x_2)\cdots(x-x_{n-1})$ where C is the leading coefficient (with $x_{n-1}$ power). So we get: $P(x) = V_{n-1}(x-x_1)(x-x_2)\cdots(x-x_{n-1})$ which by returning $x = x_n$ gives:

$V_n = V_{n-1}(x_n-x_1)(x_n-x_2)\cdots(x_n-x_{n-1})$

Repeating the same process we get:

$\displaystyle V_n = \prod_{1 \leq i<n} (x_n-x_i)V_{n-1} = \prod_{1 \leq i<n} (x_n-x_i) \prod_{1 \leq i<n-1} (x_{n-1}-x_i) V_{n-2} = \cdots = \prod_{1 \le i < j \le n} (x_j-x_i)$

which establishes the solution.

$\blacksquare$

## Source of Name

This entry was named for Alexandre-Théophile Vandermonde.